Orientalism in Media: The Shifting Portrayals of Muslim Women Through Time
Western media’s portrayal of Muslim women through Orientalism has created generations of stereotypical perceptions. The narrative changed drastically after 9/11. Media outlets started portraying Muslim women not only as exotic outsiders but also as potential threats to Western values and secular traditions.
New research reveals deep-rooted bias in these portrayals. The data shows a strong link between right-wing authoritarianism, intergroup anxiety and prejudice against veiled Muslim women, with correlation statistics at R = 0.826. Popular media reflects this prejudice consistently. Shows like “We Are Lady Parts” and movies like “Cuties” paint Muslim women in extreme ways – either as helpless victims who need saving or rebels fighting against their cultural heritage.
The portrayal of Muslim women has transformed substantially from colonial-era stereotypes to today’s digital stories. This evolution highlights the complex relationship between media representation and society’s attitudes toward Muslim women.
Colonial Era Fantasies: The Birth of Orientalist Imagery
Western imagination has long been captivated by Muslim women through colonial-era depictions that painted them as mysterious, exotic beings. Orientalism—a distorted presentation of people and cultures from Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa—became the lens through which European powers viewed and dominated Islamic societies. The original viewpoint helped colonial ambitions by showing Muslim societies as backwards and needing Western intervention.
The exotic harem: Sexual objectification in early media
The harem became the ultimate symbol of Orientalist fantasy during colonial times. Though it simply meant “family quarters,” Western imagination turned it into a forbidden zone of sexual indulgence. None of the harem paintings that make up such an important part of Orientalist art could have been painted from real life, as foreign men couldn’t access these spaces.
This lack of access only sparked Western imagination more. The harem became central to how the West saw Ottoman politics, sexuality, morality, and slavery. Artists and writers projected their own ideas onto this space. Edward Said called it a mythology that represented colonial domination instead of reality.
Orientalist artists showed harems as places of “over-the-top luxury, nudity, belly dancing, eunuchs, and suggestions of sexual servitude”. These images served two purposes: they satisfied the colonial gaze and highlighted cultural differences that justified imperial goals.
Travel literature and the mysterious veiled woman
Travel writing played a vital role in shaping Orientalist viewpoints about Muslim women. White, cisgender men dominated travel literature for centuries. Their stories shaped how the West understood the world. Their accounts often fixated on the veil, which gained special meaning in these texts.
The veiled woman symbolized both mystery and backwardness. European travelers often described Oriental women as “mysterious and exotic… feminine, always veiled, seductive and dangerous”. These descriptions linked the veil to a woman’s sexuality, portraying her as both chaste and immoral.
These accounts also justified colonial policies. Lord Cromer, British consul general in Egypt, declared the British Empire’s role was to “civilize” Egypt by freeing Egyptian women from the veil. French colonizers in Algeria used the concept of “revealing” to represent both cultural and literal domination of Muslim women.
Orientalist paintings and photography: Creating the ‘other’
Orientalist art turned these fantasies into powerful visual statements that still influence Western perceptions today. Eugène Delacroix’s “Women of Algiers” (1834) marked the most important moment in establishing this visual language as “the first true Orientalist painting”. Artists like Delacroix and Jean-Léon Gérôme created scenes where they reduced Muslim women to sexual objects existing mainly for male pleasure.
Photography added new dimensions. French photographers in Algeria bribed women to pose in “highly exotified outfits, poses, and settings, all to be consumed by the gaze of the white colonists”. These postcards showed young Algerian women first veiled in their homes, then gradually unveiling, or in semi-nudity.
These visual representations helped colonial purposes by:
- Emphasizing Islamic societies’ “otherness”
- Showing Muslim women as needing Western “liberation”
- Justifying imperial control through claims of cultural superiority
Muslim women found themselves trapped in a destructive binary—either exotic objects of desire or oppressed victims needing salvation. This stripped them of their agency and complexity, creating stereotypes that would evolve but last well beyond colonial times.
Hollywood’s Exotic East: Muslim Women in Early Cinema
The silver screen of early cinema picked up on colonial-era fantasies about the Orient. These portrayals cemented stereotypes about Muslim women that would last for generations. Static Orientalist imagery came alive through motion pictures, breathing new life into Western fantasies about the mysterious East.
Silent film stereotypes and the dancing girl trope
Hollywood cinema from the 20th century built upon Orientalist visual elements. Silent films like “Fatima” (1897), “The Sheik” (1921), and “The Thief of Baghdad” (1924) painted the Middle East as an exotic, magical realm. These productions created a “fictional Arabia” filled with deserts, camels, lavish palaces, and—most notably—veiled women, belly dancers, and concubines.
Dancing girls became a dominant theme. Arab women appeared on screen either as “bosomy belly dancers leering out from diaphanous veils” or as “shapeless ‘Bundles of Black’ driven by their males”. Such binary depictions stripped Muslim women’s complexity and reduced them to objects of desire or symbols of oppression.
The dancing girl character served as visual entertainment. Movies that showed Muslim women as courtesans, belly dancers, or harem girls pushed the narrative that they existed only to please men. “Sinbad the Sailor” exemplified this trend with its “turbaned chimers with dancing snakes” amid scenes of “superstitions, backwardness and unbelievable actions”.
The mysterious veiled temptress character
Among other character types, Hollywood created the mysterious veiled temptress—a figure that mixed Western fear with fascination. Movies like “Sheik Hadj Tahar Hadi Cherif,” “The Sheik,” and “The White Sheik” showed “Arab Sheiks… quick to deflower Western women”. Muslim women appeared as mere accessories in these stories.
This character drew from the femme fatale archetype in Western mythology. Throughout film history, the femme fatale represented “the dangers of unbridled female sexuality”. Muslim women characters added layers of exoticism and cultural otherness to this archetype.
Muslim women characters held a contradictory position in early cinema. They appeared hyper-sexualized yet victimized, with their sexuality portrayed as dangerous but enticing, foreign yet desirable. Such conflicting representations revealed deeper Western anxieties about female sexuality and cultural differences.
Impact of these portrayals on Western perceptions
These early Hollywood portrayals of Muslim women substantially shaped Western views. Movies made during European colonization of the Middle East “reflect the fantasies of the colonizer and a logic that legitimizes colonialism”.
These cinematic depictions served specific political aims:
- Reinforcing Western cultural superiority
- Justifying colonial intervention in Muslim-majority countries
- Creating a binary of “civilized” West versus “backward” East
The effects reached beyond entertainment and shaped public attitudes and foreign policy. These images cast Muslim societies as “dangerous, pre-modern and uncivilized people who do not fit with civilized western culture”. Political contexts evolved over decades, but early cinema’s visual language became the foundation for Muslim women’s portrayal throughout the 20th century and beyond.
Post-Colonial Shifts: From Exotic Object to Oppressed Victim
The colonial era’s exotic fantasies about Muslim women gave way to post-colonial media narratives that cast them as victims needing Western intervention. This change mirrored shifting geopolitical realities and Western concerns about Islam’s growing political power.
Media coverage of Islamic revolutions
The 1979 Iranian Revolution changed how media portrayed Muslim women forever. Western media outlets quickly abandoned their exotic harem fantasies and started focusing on women’s oppression after Islamic authorities made hijab mandatory. Major publications ran headlines like “Free to Choose,” “Unveiling Freedom,” and “Unveiled Threat” to highlight the contrast between pre-revolutionary freedom and post-revolutionary restrictions.
The media extensively covered women’s protests against mandatory veiling but failed to provide proper context. They viewed these events through a Western lens that labeled all veiled women as victims of religious extremism. This narrative reinforced the idea that Muslim women needed Western rescue from their culture and religion.
The veil as symbol of oppression narrative
Post-colonial media transformed the veil from an exotic curiosity into a powerful symbol of oppression. This created a problematic divide where Muslim women appeared only as:
- Oppressed victims lacking agency or education
- Potential threats rejecting “Western values” of freedom
Research shows Western media outlets consistently portray veiled Muslim women as one uniform group and ignore their diverse experiences and personal choices. Studies also reveal that images of fully veiled women often appear in stories about terrorism or cultural incompatibility, even when they’re not relevant.
Mastro points out that “mainstream western media creates an image of perpetually distressed and suffering women, leaving behind a discouraging narrative regarding the agency of women who practice Islam.” This portrayal became more intense after September 11th, as most news stories about Muslim women focused on their perceived oppression.
Western feminism’s complicated relationship with Muslim women’s representation
Western feminism’s approach to representing Muslim women often mirrors colonial attitudes. Abu-Lughod argues that after 9/11, portrayals of Muslim women became “more intertwined with the objective of rescuing Arab women from their culture,” which strengthened the savior narrative.
Scholars call this situation a “double bind” – Muslim women trapped between their communities’ patriarchal structures and Western feminist discourse that oversimplifies their experiences. Western feminists’ persistent link between modesty and oppression, and sexuality and strength, has limited Muslim women’s authentic self-expression.
The colonial roots show clearly in how unveiling became a symbol of liberation. Western feminist discourse positions itself as the judge of women’s freedom while ignoring Muslim women’s voices. One researcher states it clearly: “Muslim women do not care and should not care for the approval of white women in the West.”
Post-colonial media narratives replaced exotic fascination with patronizing concern. They continue to deny Muslim women’s complexity and agency, simply trading one oversimplified stereotype for another.
Post-9/11 Media Landscape: The Security Threat Narrative
The September 11 attacks changed how media portrayed Muslim women and created a new narrative: the security threat. Muslim women faced unprecedented discrimination as anti-Muslim hate crimes multiplied 17 times in 2001 compared to 2000. Women wearing hijab became visible targets. This dramatic change marked a departure from earlier representations, and Muslim women found themselves viewed with suspicion and fear.
From Orientalist sexual object to burkini terrorist threat
Western media used to depict Muslim women as either exotic objects or oppressed victims before 9/11. A third characterization emerged afterward – the potential security threat. This narrative became clear during the burkini controversy. About 40 French cities and towns banned burkinis on public beaches in 2016. Cannes’s mayor called them “symbols of Islamic extremism”.
News coverage of Muslim women after terrorist attacks
Media coverage often creates visual links between regular Muslim women and extremism after terrorist incidents. Research shows news stories about terrorism feature hijab-wearing women more often, even when they have no connection to the events. The portrayal of Islam and Muslims in Western media has evolved from “exotic Islam” to “threatening Islam”. This shift became more pronounced after attacks in France when anti-Muslim rhetoric increased on social media.
The politicization of Muslim women’s clothing
Muslim women’s clothing became a political weapon. France’s 2004 “hijab ban” started a wave of laws targeting Muslim dress. Politicians claimed these bans would protect national values and “save” Muslim women from oppression. Seven European countries had similar bans by 2021. This created an absurd situation where Muslim women faced fines both for wearing face coverings and not wearing COVID masks.
The security threat narrative disrupts Muslim women’s daily lives. Many experience workplace discrimination and racial profiling at airports. A newer study, published in 2019 by French researchers, revealed that 42% of Muslims faced faith-based discrimination. This number jumped to 60% for women who wore headscarves. Harassment cases have increased lately, with reports of strangers pulling women’s hijabs while calling them terrorists. Some communities have responded by organizing self-defense classes specifically for Muslim women.
Digital Age Transformations: Muslim Women Reclaiming Their Image
Muslim women have taken control of their narratives in the digital age to counter decades of orientalist portrayals. Technology has enabled them to present authentic self-representations that challenge mainstream stereotypes over the last several years.
Social media as platform for authentic representation
Muslim women now employ digital platforms to reclaim their image. Journalist Mona Eltahawy’s #MosqueMeToo movement on X (formerly Twitter) gained significant momentum when her original post spread more than 2,500 times. This hashtag empowered Muslim women to share their experiences of harassment in religious spaces and brought visibility to previously ignored issues.
Getty Images saw a 107% increase in keyword searches for “Muslim” within a year. This surge reflected the growing need for authentic representation. Muslim content creators collaborated with mainstream platforms to produce images showing Muslim women “just, y’know, doing stuff” – from taking selfies to working out.
Muslim women content creators challenging stereotypes
The landscape of public perception continues to evolve through Muslim women influencers and collectives. Muslim Sisterhood, a creative collective formed in 2017, launched with a photography series that celebrated Muslim women who “love streetwear and have edge.” Their work directly challenged traditional orientalist imagery.
These content creators face unique challenges notwithstanding that. Research indicates 58% of Muslim women feel stereotyped in media and advertising, while all but one of these women believe Muslims receive positive representation. Muslim women persist in creating spaces where their identity becomes just one aspect of their multifaceted lives rather than the sole focus.
Mainstream media’s evolving approach to Muslim women’s stories
Traditional media outlets have started adjusting their approach. “We Are Lady Parts” showcases “the diversity of Muslim women as they exist today, ethnically, racially, dogmatically” without making religious identity the central theme. Shows like “Never Have I Ever” and “Abbott Elementary” feature Muslim characters with nuanced storylines.
We have a long way to go, but we can build on this progress. Muslim women rarely appear as journalists or experts commenting on general topics. Muslim Casting and the Muslim Women On-Screen Test emerged as initiatives to encourage authentic representations. They emphasize portrayals of “Muslim women in motion” by showing them in various contexts beyond home and school.
The media’s portrayal of Muslim women has seen a remarkable transformation across different periods in history. Colonial times reduced them to exotic objects of desire. Post-colonial stories painted them as oppressed victims who needed Western help. The narrative took a dramatic turn after 9/11, when media started portraying Muslim women as potential security threats.
Today’s digital platforms give Muslim women unmatched opportunities to show their authentic selves. These content creators actively challenge stereotypes through social media, photography, and entertainment. We have a long way to go, but we can build on this progress as mainstream media starts showing more nuanced portrayals of Muslim women.
Recent trends paint a promising picture as Muslim women take control of their stories. The numbers speak for themselves – Muslim-related image searches have jumped by 107%. On top of that, platforms like Muslim Casting and various digital movements are breaking down barriers that once kept Muslim women’s voices out of media.
This rise mirrors society’s changing views on representation and cultural understanding. Old stereotypes still exist, but Muslim women are more visible than ever as creators, influencers, and storytellers. This points to a future where media shows their diverse real-life experiences rather than Western assumptions or fears.
